Human–Shark Research: Studying Shared Waters, Shared Lives

My work in human–shark research asks what becomes visible when sharks are studied not only as biological subjects, but as participants in shared worlds with people. Across New Zealand and India, I have explored how encounters with sharks shape human experience, local knowledge, livelihoods, culture, conservation, and the ways sharks themselves are understood. This work brings anthropology, psychology, marine social science, multispecies ethnography, and the arts into conversation.

One strand of my research began in Bluff, at the southern end of New Zealand’s South Island, where I studied encounters between people and white sharks in cage-diving tourism. Through fieldwork with operators, visitors, local communities, and the surrounding environment, I examined how these encounters affect both people and sharks. Cage diving is not simply a meeting between a tourist and an animal. It is shaped by boats, bait, promotional images, local economies, conservation debates, media stories, and the individual presence and behaviour of sharks.

This research also considers how popular culture influences what people expect to see. Since Jaws, the white shark has often been represented as a monstrous, ever-present threat. In my work on the changing eras of the shark image, I trace how that cultural image can shape public feeling and commercial tourism. The shark’s open jaw becomes a powerful symbol: it attracts attention, yet can also overshadow the complexity of real animals and real encounters. Meeting sharks in the ocean may challenge that inherited image, making room for curiosity, respect, and more informed conservation.

My work in New Zealand also helped develop a multispecies approach to human–shark research. Instead of treating sharks as passive scenery or studying human responses in isolation, I attend to how both species shape an encounter. Their movements and choices, people’s feelings and decisions, and the conditions of the shared marine environment all matter. This perspective is part of a broader effort to understand human–shark relations as dynamic and relational rather than as a series of isolated incidents.

A second strand of my research focuses on the Kamot, the local name for sharks in the Sundarbans of West Bengal. The region is widely known for human–tiger encounters, but the long-standing conflict between people and sharks had received little scholarly attention. Working with local knowledge holders—including fishers, survivors of bites, doctors, and teachers—I documented accounts of Kamot encounters, the circumstances in which they occurred, their effects on people, and local ways of treating injuries. Fishers’ ecological knowledge also helped identify shark species that may be associated with bites. These identifications remain questions for further investigation, but the accounts establish an important foundation for research into a poorly documented human–shark relationship.

This research brings attention to people whose experiences have often gone unheard, particularly women who enter the rivers to collect prawn larvae and have suffered devastating bites. It also shows how limited knowledge of the sharks can affect conservation: when a species and its relationship with people are absent from public and academic understanding, it becomes harder to build support for either the affected communities or the animals and habitats involved.

Research in the Sundarbans therefore led me beyond documentation alone. In collaboration with local partners, I helped develop the Kamot Ganga Puja, an artistic and cultural intervention that represented a shark as an associated animal of the goddess Ganga, alongside a girl representing the region’s women. The project responded to the absence of sharks in local cultural representation and sought to create a way to speak about both the people harmed by encounters and the sharks living in those waters. The aim was to invite recognition and respect rather than unexamined fear. My related work also explores how artistic and livelihood initiatives can contribute to community engagement and conservation.

Together, these experiences have informed SHHRKS—the Shark–Human Holistic Research and Knowledge System. SHHRKS is a transdisciplinary framework for understanding human–shark relations in shared marine and riverine environments. It brings ecological and social science into dialogue with local knowledge, sensory and embodied experience, artistic practice, and community collaboration. It treats human–shark encounters as part of wider ecological, cultural, technological, economic, and emotional systems, and connects research with practical responses such as conservation, livelihood initiatives, cultural engagement, and policy dialogue.

Art and multimodal communication are central to this approach. Painting, photography, documentary, ritual, reflective writing, and storytelling can help communicate experiences that are difficult to convey through academic prose alone. In my work, these forms are not simply illustrations added after research is complete. They can be ways of noticing, interpreting, and sharing how people and sharks inhabit the same worlds.

Across my research, the central concern is how to make human–shark relationships more fully understood. That requires taking sharks seriously as living, responsive beings; listening to people whose knowledge and experiences are often overlooked; and recognizing that conservation depends on more than biological data alone. It also depends on the stories, images, relationships, and shared responsibilities through which people come to understand the animals with whom they share the water.

The first white shark cage diving ethnography, and human-white shark multispecies research.

To my knowledge, this is the first full-scale white shark cage diving ethnography, and human- white shark multispecies research. Lets talk briefly about the major objectives and theoretical considerations.

Bibliography of human shark research.

In the spirit of creating a collaborative research platform, and the deep belief that this knowledge should be available to anyone that is interested. I am crating a dynamic bibliography of literature which investigates human-shark interaction from natural sciences, social sciences and law and other fields. Considering the lack of direct resources, I am considering all literature which directly or indirectly investigating the interaction. I will be updating the list as and when I get new literature. I encourage scholars to use this resource, and contact me to update any new research.

Full Bibliography

This research was situated in the interstices of conflicting ideas, tensions and beliefs: the imagined monsters vs. the actual fish; and the imagined experience of cage diving as opposed to the real one. As a participant observer I lived, worked and learnt with the cage diving operation of Shark Experience NZ (now the only surviving WCN), and the local community of Bluff, for a total of eight months across two years.

The overall objective was to explore the effects of human and White Shark interaction through cage diving in New Zealand, on the sharks, the tourist, the local community, and global shark knowledge. Furthermore, to situate this objective, the research also needed to extensively elaborate on the creation of the monstrous image of the White Sharks, and the conflict in the country created related to it.

To explore the genesis of the monstrous image of White Sharks and human fear of them.
To explore the Conflict in NZ with White Sharks and WCN.
To explore Bluff’s relation with White Sharks and WCN.
To ethnographically describe WCN.
To explore the relation of cage diving and White Sharks to lives of the tourist.
To explore the effect of the shark encounter on the tourist and their attitude towards White Sharks.
To explore the relation of cage diving with lives of the White Sharks in Foveaux Strait.
To explore the emergent knowledge of White Sharks from WCN
To explore the sensory experience of WCN and the human-shark interaction facilitated through it.

Being a participant observer, I worked as a boat hand with the Shark Experience team. I learnt about the operation first-hand, from baiting the sharks, to cleaning the boat, helping the tourists ‘suit up’ for the dive, and observing the interaction of humans and sharks facilitated through this practice. Residing in Bluff and engaging with the locals helped me to get a deeper understanding of the lives of the people of the town and their relationship with the sharks and the cage diving operation. This gave me insights into the lives of the sharks and the humans impacting each other that few scientists are privileged to have.

There were two conceptual aspects that had to be addressed before delving into the thesis. Firstly, as mentioned, as much as I was interested in the practice and the humans associated with it, I was equally interested in its effect on the lives of the sharks involved; my aim was to create a holistic multispecies picture of the practice, acknowledging the influence of both the species on the practice and its effect on both. The research needed to ask the question how can we study the culture and the life created around cage diving if we did not study the sharks as influential actors in the practice (as elaborated on in further chapters), whose lives were affected by and were affecting the lives of the humans sharing the water space with them? To address this, the thesis had to recognise the limits of classical anthropological investigations of cultures and the animals around them and adopt the ‘more than human’ approach in contemporary social scientific research.

In the Multispecies salon [a series of panels, round tables, and events in art galleries held at the Annual Meetings of the American Anthropological Association (in 2006, 2008, and 2010) (Kirksey & Helmreich, 2010, pg. 546) ] “Anthropologists have collaborated with artists and biological scientists to illuminate how diverse organisms are entangled in political, economic, and cultural systems”(The Multispecies Salon, n.d.). Kirksey (2014) stated that in the general practice of cultural anthropology, ethnography has been commonly understood as people-writing (ethnography), written primarily based on the agency of human beings on having significant influence on their environment and other lifeforms sharing it. However, multispecies ethnography challenges these classical notions; “A new genre of writing and mode of research has arrived on the anthropological stage: multispecies ethnography. Creatures previously appearing on the margins of anthropology—as part of the landscape, as food for humans, as symbols—have been pressed into the foreground in recent ethnographies” (Kirksey & Helmreich, 2010, pg. 545).

Even in a lot of contemporary ethnographies on cultures which involved animals - the animals were invisible (Kiik, 2018). Historically, sharks like many other non-human life forms were considered to be by-standers in anthropological and ethnographical investigation, therefore my aim was to make the sharks as visible in my ethnography, as the humans involved. Kiik noted even in anthropologists of conservation and other human animal researchers, there seemed to be a trend of intentionally avoiding ecological and behavioural research on the animal of the region. This may be primarily to take a political stand against the prevalence of natural sciences in animal studies, a stance which had ethical relevance often to defend native knowledge against empirically argued ‘scientific’ knowledge and conservationist knowledge but is ultimately harmful to the investigation as a whole. Much like conservationists, and even natural scientists ignoring native knowledge, social scientists can overlook natural scientific knowledge which might help to answer specific questions relevant to the topic they are enquiring about (Kiik, 2018).

This is not helped by the fact that un-familiarity with methods and tools and approaches in varied disciplines are always the inherent challenges of these mixed disciplinary projects. Especially if it is a singular researcher working on it, or a team, who are trained in specific disciplinary silos (Parathian, McLennan, Hill, Frazão-Moreira, & Hockings, 2018). I aimed at constructing an ethnography which was inclusive, exploring the shared lives of both the species. Consequently, I endeavoured to utilize methods of investigation from ecology as much as classical anthropological methods as interviews and surveys and participant observation [elaborated on in chapter no 2].

Another theoretical approach relevant here is Actor Network Theory (ANT) [Explained in more detail in chapter 2 and 7]. MacLeod et al., (2019) argued that:

“ … fundamental connection between actor-network theory and ethnography is their focus on practices: everyday sayings, doings, and relations with objects that make up what people do in their everyday lives... Practices themselves are multi-layered and heterogeneous; therefore, understanding practices requires carefully tracing multiple actors that assemble and give meaning to human worlds, activities and lives.... Practices can be described as a ‘mangle’ of people, things, intent, knowledge, processes, and many other factors.... [in other words] practices are both social and material; and, focusing on detailed description of what is actually happening in the field, including the mundane” (pg. 180).

To create a coherent account of complex assemblages and agentic abilities of human and non- humans interacting within varied affective networks, ANT collects data from varied points of data collection. Consequently, I used ANT to elaborate on the network of WCN.

Finally, while knee deep in the field work (literally one day when I was half submerged on the cage diving platform in the undulating Foveaux) I realized one significant element was missing from the thesis; that which cannot be entirely expressed through written documents. This was the sensory experience of the human-shark encounter facilitated through this practice in the dynamic Foveaux, and the researcher observing it. Hence, the final part of the thesis was creation of a sensory film ‘expressing’ the perceived sensations from the first-person view of the anthropologist. It aims to take the viewer into the experience of being in the field; the practice; the boat in the high sea; the waiting involved in such an unpredictable environment; finally encountering the sharks, and its impact on tourist’s attitude towards them.

Reflections on shark demystification

Sharks were considered to be villains of the sea as much as cultural totems from ancient times (Jøn & Aich, 2015), but in the 20th / 21st century the world was ready for a monster that could exist in reality, and in 1975, they found that with Jaws. In my book Iridescent skin (Aich, In press), I argue, the current image of Great White Sharks in the public imagination is a hyperreal avatar of white shark the fish, where the image is grander than the real fish. In the post-Jaws era, this image has been kept alive and has proliferated through various media content and has created billion-dollar industries- like television, movies, and tourism. However, this negative image has devastating effects on their conservation efforts (Neff, 2015; Neff & Yang, 2013), and hence on their numbers in the global oceans, like many other species of sharks (Carne, 2019; Ebert et al., 2015; Queiroz et al., 2019; Roff et al., 2018; Simpfendorfer et al., 2011). Consequently, there is an immediate need to demystify them. Lately, there have been efforts to demystify sharks with experts promoting two primary avenues. Firstly, challenging disinformation about their behavior and attack possibilities, and public education initiatives. Secondly, arguing the significance of having direct controlled encounters with them in their natural environment through shark tourism (Apps et al., 2016, 2018; Dobson, 2007; Friedrich et al., 2014), which in the case of white sharks is achieved generally through cage diving. However, although both of these avenues are pertinent, there may be value in rethinking them. Regarding firsthand encounters, I do agree that meeting white sharks in the ocean through cage diving does help alter tourist’s attitude towards them. In my fieldwork with white sharkcage diving in New Zealand, I quantitatively and qualitatively demonstrated that even longterm divers came to the boat with the baggage of the monstrous white shark image. Consequently, when they met them, there was a cognitive dissonance between the image and theactual fish. Furthermore, their friends and family who came with them also had a profound effect on their perception (Aich, In press), however, there are some questions to be raised. Firstly, it is only the people who were interested in meeting the sharks who came to see them and had a more favorable opinion about the sharks and the marine environment than the general population in the first place. Furthermore, cage diving is the avenue through with white sharks photographic and videographic images are created and distributed- focusing on the sharks lunging at the bait or biting the cage. This created image is still so potent, even the same industries that promote demystification, often use the same ‘monster’ tropes to attract customers, be it cage diving, books, television shows, or documentaries.The most important question is, did mere dis-information create this image? In my book, I explored how it is a combination of multiple factors from their behavioral and aesthetic traits and the environment they hunt in- which tapped into our instinctual fears. The shark wasmerely the right vessel to commodify our primal dread of the unknown, hence it had such a long-lasting cognitive effect in mass consciousness (Aich, In press). To counter that, yes, it is pivotal to spread unbiased and factual knowledge, however, the more I contemplate, Dostoevsky’s words come back to me ‘Beauty will save the world’ (Dostoyevsky & Arad, 2004). If the image was not created from misinformation, how do we expect merely information to change it? The argument is, if you love or find something beautiful you tend to take care of it. Is love related only to the data and information we have about something/someone? Or is it related to our emotional connection with them, often beyond objective reasoning? Furthermore, there is some indication that emotion has more effects on decision making than cognition (Dolan, 2002; Schwarz, 2000; Shiv & Fedorikhin, 1999). Hence, in my humble opinion, I believe, the key is love and beauty. In my communications I have found, when I shared the sense of beauty through my visual art, writings, and expressions, it had more effect on people’s feeling towards sharks, than the data I provided. Similarly in cage diving practices of New Zealand, I found in most of the cases, people who came to see them came because of love, love of their family and friends, the marine environment, and for a fish which they had not even seen before. And when they did encounter them, that love often overflowed, through their tears shared with family, laughter with friends, and kisses among partners. We have to first understand and acknowledge the deep-rooted reasoning of our fear of them, and from that create a culture of dialogue to heal our scared minds. Maybe approach it as social cognitive behaviour therapy, starting from small groups of individuals at all ages, then to the mass society. Maybe we have to share our stories and images of them emphasizing their beauty, and our love, admiration, and cultural relationships with them and the marine environment. There are knowledge and emotion that cannot be communicated only through verbal communication, which has to be hence expressed through art, abstract and sensory expressions. A lot can be lost in translation when one is trying to communicate something verbally, that was not perceived and imagined verbally. Hence art, and sensory expressions which express our emotions need to have a lot more pivotal role to play in shark demystification and public education initiatives. There may be a need to demystify the shark ‘experts’ too. The experts often create an ‘adventurer’ image because they work with sharks (Particularly who are media inclined), consciously or subconsciously. So much so, I must reflect, that I am using the same trope of Jaws in this article title, because of the attention it generates, and I have used the same strategies of personal image creation to promote myself and my work too. Often in ‘shark’ seminars, experts talk with experts, which is important, however, in my limited observation, it does not allow inclusive discussions, and at times put them at a pedestal away from the general population. Maybe it is important to ask the experts not to take merely the knowledge-based approach and preach to people about the importance of sharks and the statistical probability of shark attacks. More than preaching maybe it is about sharing, our fear, and our sense of beauty, more than mere scientific knowledge, maybe the path is personal emotional connections. We are at the verge of a dialectical change in shark image creation and distribution, helmed by artists and scientists. Much like negative photographic images produced of sharks from practices like cage diving, more images of sharks have now been, and should be taken, edited, and shared in the public domain which focuses on the calmness of the demeanor of the sharks and human-shark interaction. These images may be the antithesis of the ferocious man-eater image produced by the general media. They may focus on their aesthetic beauty and inquisitivenessabout the humans, rather than always on the open jaw. There is immediate necessity to rethink composition, lighting, context and even music involve in shark related media content [For example refer to my sensory documentary (Aich, 2020)]. As long as some organizationsand individuals intentionally produce and distribute images of the sharks focused on their aggression, there is the need for images that focus on the alternative perspective, thankfully we are seeing that more and more. Finally, it is about time to discuss governmental and private intervention with some form of censorship or at least strong disclaimers when videos, images, and stories of shark-filled with misinformation are shared in mass media. In the recent past, some social media groups have put disclaimers of ‘potentially misleading’ information, in case of ‘alternate facts’ in America. We have seen, the care that is taken about being sensitive while creating and disseminating content about certain religious or social groups, and disclaimers on use of cigarette on TV, and even violent acts- because they have real life impact. Similarly, why should there not be disclaimers about the misinformation that is spread through this hyperreal image of sharks in media which is potentially related to devastating effect on an apex species- which in turn affects the global marine ecosystem? There has to be a governmental push in shark demystification as much as policy to stop finning and unregulated fishing, which again is part of the loop that there needs to be shark demystification to alter people’s negative attitude towards them so they can lobby governments to do such. This has been merely my experience and opinion about the topic, and a lot of well constructed research must be conducted to understand what is really needed here. Factual education and direct encounter with sharks in controlled environments undeniably have positive effects on people’s attitude towards sharks. However, perhaps, the next step for shark demystification is personal emotional connections, and imbibing cultural, local, and native knowledge expressed through art, sensory expressions, and fables, perhaps more. However, one thing that is certain, concerns with demystification must be addressed strategically, and can no longer be at the fringes of species conservation efforts. There is an immediate need for more transdisciplinary multipronged research labs working on this specifically. The simple fact is white sharks, and other such apex predators are invariable parts of the global marine ecosystems, we do not have the privilege anymore to take their image and its effect on the holistic natural world lightly, and there is a need for immediate accountability!Prof. Aich2021

Human–Shark Bibliography

Humans and sharks have often been studied through separate disciplinary frameworks. This bibliography brings together research that examines their interactions and relationships across the natural and social sciences, law, and related fields.

I am developing it as an open, collaborative resource for anyone interested in human–shark research. Because relevant work is dispersed across disciplines—and may address these interactions directly or indirectly—the bibliography aims to provide a useful foundation for researchers and readers. It is a work in progress, and I will continue to update and reorganise it as new literature emerges. If you know of research that should be included, I welcome your suggestions.

Human Attitude towards shark

Acuña-Marrero, D., Cruz-Modino, R. de la, Smith, A. N. H., Salinas-de-León, P., Pawley, M. D. M., & Anderson, M. J. (2018). Understanding human attitudes towards sharks to promote sustainable coexistence. Marine Policy, 91, 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.02.018

Aich, R. S. (2021a). Jaws and beauty, reflections on Great White Shark demystification. Academia Letters. https://www.academia.edu/50834524/Jaws_and_beauty_reflections_on_Great_White_Shark_demystification

Apps, K., Lloyd, D., & Dimmock, K. (2015). Scuba diving with the grey nurse shark (Carcharias taurus): An application of the theory of planned behaviour to identify divers beliefs. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 25(2), 201–211. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.2430

Bögeholz, S. (2006). Nature experience and its importance for environmental knowledge, values and action: Recent German empirical contributions. Environmental Education Research, 12(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504620500526529

Eovaldi, B., Thompson, P., Eovaldi, K., & Eovaldi, R. (2016). Shark Fears and the Media. Wilderness & Environmental Medicine, 27(1), 184–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2015.10.012

Francis, B. (2012). Before and after “Jaws”: Changing representations of shark attacks. Great Circle: Journal of the Australian Association for Maritime History, 34(2), 44–64.

Friedrich, L. A., Jefferson, R., & Glegg, G. (2014). Public perceptions of sharks: Gathering support for shark conservation. Marine Policy, 47, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2014.02.003

Gibbs, L., & Warren, A. (2015). Transforming shark hazard policy: Learning from ocean-users and shark encounter in Western Australia. Marine Policy, 58, 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.04.014

Glaus, K. B. J., Adrian-Kalchhauser, I., Piovano, S., Appleyard, S. A., Brunnschweiler, J. M., & Rico, C. (2019). Fishing for profit or food? Socio-economic drivers and fishers’ attitudes towards sharks in Fiji. Marine Policy, 100, 249–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.11.037

Gray, G. M. E., & Gray, C. A. (2017). Beach-User Attitudes to Shark Bite Mitigation Strategies on Coastal Beaches; Sydney, Australia. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 22(3), 282. https://doi.org/10.1080/10871209.2017.1295491

Huveneers, C., Meekan, M. G., Apps, K., Ferreira, L. C., Pannell, D., & Vianna, G. M. S. (2017). The economic value of shark-diving tourism in Australia. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 27(3), 665–680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-017-9486-x

Lama, R. L. de la, Puente, S. D. la, & Riveros, J. C. (2018). Attitudes and misconceptions towards sharks and shark meat consumption along the Peruvian coast. PLOS ONE, 13(8), e0202971. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202971

McCagh, C., Sneddon, J., & Blache, D. (2015). Killing sharks: The media’s role in public and political response to fatal human–shark interactions. Marine Policy, 62, 271–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.09.016

Mcclellan Press, K., Mandelman, J., Burgess, E., Cooke, S. J., Nguyen, V. M., & Danylchuk, A. J. (2016). Catching sharks: Recreational saltwater angler behaviours and attitudes regarding shark encounters and conservation: Saltwater angler behaviours and attitudes regarding shark encounters. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 26(4), 689–702. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.2581

Neff, C. (2014). Human perceptions and attitudes towards sharks: Examining the predator policy paradox. In Sharks: Conservation, Governance and Management. London: Routledge.

Neff, C. (2015). The Jaws Effect: How movie narratives are used to influence policy responses to shark bites in Western Australia. Australian Journal of Political Science, 50(1), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2014.989385

Neff, C. (2019). Governing Emotion: How to Analyze Emotional Political Situations. Flaws: Shark Bites and Emotional Public Policymaking. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/39348023/Governing_Emotion_How_to_Analyze_Emotional_Political_Situations

Neff, C. L., & Yang, J. Y. H. (2013). Shark bites and public attitudes: Policy implications from the first before and after shark bite survey. Marine Policy, 38, 545–547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2012.06.017

Nosal, A. P., Keenan, E. A., Hastings, P. A., & Gneezy, A. (2016). The Effect of Background Music in Shark Documentaries on Viewers’ Perceptions of Sharks. Plos One, 11(8), e0159279. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159279

O'Bryhim, J. (2011). The effects of public opinion on sharks: knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors towards sharks and shark conservation. Saarbrücken, LAP, Lambert Academic Publishing.

Pepin-Neff, C. L. (2019). Flaws: Shark Bites and Emotional Public Policymaking (1st ed. 2019 edition). Palgrave Macmillan.

Pepin-Neff, C. L., & Wynter, T. (2018). Reducing fear to influence policy preferences: An experiment with sharks and beach safety policy options. Marine Policy, 88, 222–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.11.023

Whatmough, S., Putten, I. V., & Chin, A. (2011). From hunters to nature observers: A record of 53 years of diver attitudes towards sharks and rays and marine protected areas. Marine and Freshwater Research, 62(6), 755–763. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF10142

Sharks in human culture

Aich, R. S. (2021). The Kamot Ganga Puja: Sharks of Sundarban. Visual Ethnography, 10(1), Article 1. http://www.vejournal.org/index.php/vejournal/article/view/264

Aich, R. S. (2021b). Jaws, old dwellings, and a mermaid: Meditations of a shark anthropologist on multimodality. Entanglements. https://www.academia.edu/65111053/Jaws_old_dwellings_and_a_mermaid_Meditations_of_a_shark_anthropologist_on_multimodality

Akerman, K. (1995). The use of bone, shell, and teeth by Aboriginal Australians. Lubbock, Museum of Texas Tech University: Lubbock.

Andersen, J. C. (2011). Myths and Legends of the Polynesians (Dover ed edition). New York: Dover Publications.

Biancorosso, G. (2010). The Shark in the Music. Music Analysis, 29(1–3), 306–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2249.2011.00331.x

Castro, J. I. (2013). Historical knowledge of sharks: ancient science, earliest American encounters, and American science, fisheries, and utilization. Marine Fisheries Review, 75(4), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.7755/MFR.75.4.1

Cione, A. L. And Bonomo M. (2003). Great White Shark Teeth Used as Pendants and Possible Tools by Early-Middle Holocene Terrestrial Mammal Hunter-Gatherers in the Eastern Pampas (Southern South America). International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 13.

de Borhegyi, S. F. (1961). Shark Teeth, Stingray Spines, and Shark Fishing in Ancient Mexico and Central America. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 17(3), 273–296. https://doi.org/10.1086/soutjanth.17.3.3629046

De la Puente Jeri, S. (2017). Characterizing the knowledge and attitudes towards sharks and the domestic use of shark meat and fins in Peru (University of British Columbia). https://doi.org/10.14288/1.0355844

Hunt, C. (1981). Shark tooth and stone blade, Pacific island art from the University of Aberdeen. Aberdeen, University of Aberdeen.

Jøn, A. A., & Aich, R. S. (2015). Southern Shark Lore Forty Years after Jaws: The Positioning of Sharks Within Murihiku, New Zealand. Australian Folklore, 30, 169–192.

Kosuch, L. (1993). Sharks and shark products in Prehistoric South Florida. Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology and Paleoenvironmental Studies. Gainesville, University of Florida. 2: 1–52.

Morey, S. (2002). The shark in modern culture: Beauty and the beast. Journal of undergraduate research 4.

Shark predation on humans (Shark attacks), biological perspective.

Ahčan, U., Radonić, V., Militarov, A., & Leban, M. (2014). Treating a patient with lower limb injury from shark attack – a case report. Zdravniški Vestnik, 83(1).

Byard, R. W., Gilbert, J. D., & Brown, K. (2000). Pathologic features of fatal shark attacks. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 21(3), 225.

Byard, Roger W., James, R. A., & Heath, K. J. (2006). Recovery of human remains after shark attack. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 27(3), 256.

Clua, E., & Séret, B. (2010). Unprovoked fatal shark attack in Lifou Island (Loyalty Islands, New Caledonia, South Pacific) by a great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 31(3), 281.

Clua, E., & Séret, B. (2016). Species identification of the shark involved in the 2007 Lifou fatal attack on a swimmer: A reply to Tirard et al. (2015). Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2016.03.004

Ihama, Y., Ninomiya, K., Noguchi, M., & Fuke, C. (2009). Characteristic features of injuries due to shark attacks: A review of 12 cases. Legal Medicine, 11(5), 219–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.legalmed.2009.06.002

Lentz, A. K., Burgess, G. H., Perrin, K., & Brown, J. A. (2010). Mortality and Management of 96 Shark Attacks and Development of a Shark Bite Severity Scoring System. The American Surgeon, 76(1), 101.

Stock, M. K., Winburn, A. P., & Burgess, G. H. (n.d.). Skeletal Indicators of Shark Feeding on Human Remains: Evidence from Florida Forensic Anthropology Cases. Journal of Forensic Sciences. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/10997833/Skeletal_Indicators_of_Shark_Feeding_on_Human_Remains_A_Case_Study_from_the_Eastern_Coast_of_Florida

Tirard, P., Maillaud, C., & Borsa, P. (2015). Fatal tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvier attack in New Caledonia erroneously ascribed to great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 33, 68–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2015.04.011

Shark predation on humans (Shark attacks), ecological perspective.

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Human predation on shark (shark fishing and effect of Anthropocene)

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Zhou, X., Booth, H., Li, M., Song, Z., MacMillan, D. C., Zhang, W., Wang, Q., & Veríssimo, D. (2021). Leveraging shark-fin consumer preferences to deliver sustainable fisheries. Conservation Letters, 14(6), e12842. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12842

Shark tourism and effect on sharks

Anderson, D. J., Kobryn, H. T., Norman, B. M., Bejder, L., Tyne, J. A., & Loneragan, N. R. (2014). Spatial and temporal patterns of nature-based tourism interactions with whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 148(Journal Article), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2014.05.023

Becerril‐García, E. E., Hoyos‐Padilla, E. M., Micarelli, P., Galván‐Magaña, F., & Sperone, E. (2019). The surface behaviour of white sharks during ecotourism: A baseline for monitoring this threatened species around Guadalupe Island, Mexico. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 29(5), 773–782. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.3057

Bradley, D., Papastamatiou, Y., & Caselle, J. (2017). No persistent behavioural effects of scuba diving on reef sharks. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 567(Generic), 173–184. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12053

Bromilow, M. (2014). Feeding behaviour of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) around a cage diving vessel and the implications for conservation. Thesis, University of Michigan.

Bruce, B. (2015). A review of cage diving impacts on white shark behaviour and recommendations for research and the industry’s management in New Zealand. Department of Conservation, New Zealand.

Bruce, B. D., & Bradford, R. W. (2013). The effects of shark cage-diving operations on the behaviour and movements of white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, at the Neptune Islands, South Australia. Marine Biology, 160(4), 889–907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-012-2142-z

Bruce, B., & Bradford, R. (2012). The effects of shark cage-diving operations on the behaviour and movements of white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, at the Neptune Islands, South Australia. Marine Biology, 160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-012-2142-z

Brunnschweiler, J. (2015). Shark Attacks and Shark Diving. Wilderness & Environmental Medicine, 26(2), 276–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2014.11.002

Brunnschweiler, J. M., Payne, N. L., & Barnett, A. (2018). Hand feeding can periodically fuel a major portion of bull shark energy requirements at a provisioning site in Fiji. Animal Conservation, 21(1), 31–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12370

Clua, E., Buray, N., Legendre, P., Mourier, J., & Planes, S. (2010). Behavioural response of sicklefin lemon sharks Negaprion acutidens to underwater feeding for ecotourism purposes. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 414(Journal Article), 257–266. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08746

Fitzpatrick, R., Abrantes, K. G., Seymour, J., & Barnett, A. (2011). Variation in depth of whitetip reef sharks: Does provisioning ecotourism change their behaviour? Coral Reefs, 30(3), 569–577. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-011-0769-8

Gallagher, A. J., Vianna, G. M. S., Papastamatiou, Y. P., Macdonald, C., Guttridge, T. L., & Hammerschlag, N. (2015). Biological effects, conservation potential, and research priorities of shark diving tourism. Biological Conservation, 184, 365–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.02.007

Hammerschlag, N., Gallagher, A. J., Wester, J., Luo, J., & Ault, J. S. (2012). Don’t bite the hand that feeds: Assessing ecological impacts of provisioning ecotourism on an apex marine predator: Ecological impacts of shark ecotourism. Functional Ecology, 26(3), 567–576. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2012.01973.x

Hammerschlag, N., Gutowsky, L. F. G., Gallagher, A. J., Matich, P., & Cooke, S. J. (2017). Diel habitat use patterns of a marine apex predator (tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvier) at a high use area exposed to dive tourism. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 495, 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2017.05.010

Huveneers, C., Rogers, P. J., Beckmann, C., Semmens, J. M., Bruce, B. D., & Seuront, L. (2013). The effects of cage-diving activities on the fine-scale swimming behaviour and space use of White Sharks. Marine Biology, 160(11), 2863–2875. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-013-2277-6.

Huveneers, C., Watanabe, Y. Y., Payne, N. L., & Semmens, J. M. (2018). Interacting with wildlife tourism increases activity of white sharks. Conservation Physiology, 6(1), coy019. https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy019

Laroche, R. K., Kock, A. A., Dill, L. M., & Oosthuizen, W. H. (2007). Effects of provisioning ecotourism activity on the behaviour of White Sharks Carcharodon carcharias. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 338, 199–209. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps338199

McKeon, M. G., & Drew, J. A. (2019). Community dynamics in Fijian coral reef fish communities vary with conservation and shark-based tourism. Pacific Conservation Biology, 25(4), 363. https://doi.org/10.1071/PC18045

Meekan, M., & Lowe, J. (2019). Does provisioning for tourism harm whale sharks at Oslob? A review of the evidence and reply to Ziegler et al. (2018). Tourism Management, 75(Journal Article), 626–629.

Smith, K. R., Scarpaci, C., Scarr, M. J., & Otway, N. M. (2014b). Scuba diving tourism with critically endangered grey nurse sharks (Carcharias taurus) off eastern Australia: Tourist demographics, shark behaviour and diver compliance. Tourism Management, 45, 211–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.05.002

Thomson, J. A., Araujo, G., Labaja, J., McCoy, E., Murray, R., & Ponzo, A. (2017). Feeding the world’s largest fish: Highly variable whale shark residency patterns at a provisioning site in the Philippines. Royal Society Open Science, 4(9), 170394. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.170394

Shark tourism and effect on humans

Apps, K., Dimmock, K., & Huveneers, C. (2018). Turning wildlife experiences into conservation action: Can white shark cage-dive tourism influence conservation behaviour? Marine Policy, 88, 108–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.11.024

Apps, K., Dimmock, K., Lloyd, D., & Huveneers, C. (2016). In the Water with White Sharks (Carcharodon carcharias): Participants’ Beliefs toward Cage-diving in Australia. Anthrozoös, 29(2), 231–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2016.1152714

Beaumont, N. (2001). Ecotourism and the conservation ethic- recruiting the uninitiated or preaching to the converted? Tour, 9(4), 317–341.

Cagua, E. F., Collins, N., Hancock, J., & Rees, R. (2014). Whale shark economics: A valuation of wildlife tourism in South Ari Atoll, Maldives. PeerJ, 2(Journal Article), e515. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.515

Catlin, J., Jones, T., & Jones, R. (2012). Balancing commercial and environmental needs: Licensing as a means of managing whale shark tourism on Ningaloo reef. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(2), 163–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2011.602686

Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M., Barnes-Mauthe, M., Al-Abdulrazzak, D., Navarro-Holm, E., & Sumaila, U. R. (2013). Global economic value of shark ecotourism: Implications for conservation. Oryx, 47(3), 381–388. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605312001718

Colangelo, J. (2015). Diving Beneath the Surface: A Phenomenological Exploration of Shark Ecotourism and Environmental Interpretation from the Perspective of Tourists. Thesis, Université d’Ottawa / University of Ottawa. http://dx.doi.org/10.20381/ruor-4232

Cubero‐Pardo, P., Herrón, P., & González‐Pérez, F. (2011). Shark reactions to scuba divers in two marine protected areas of the Eastern Tropical Pacific. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 21(3), 239–246. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.1189

Dicken, M. L., & Hosking, S. G. (2009). Socio-economic aspects of the tiger shark diving industry within the Aliwal Shoal Marine Protected Area, South Africa. African Journal of Marine Science, 31(2), 227–232. https://doi.org/10.2989/AJMS.2009.31.2.10.882

Dobson, J. (2007). Jaws or Jawsome? Exploring the shaek-diving experience. 5th International coastal and marine tourism congress., Auckland, New Zealand, New Zealand tourism research institute, AUT university.

Gallagher, A. J., & Hammerschlag, N. (2011). Global shark currency: The distribution, frequency, and economic value of shark ecotourism. Current Issues in Tourism, 14(8), 797–812. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2011.585227

Gallagher, A. J., & Huveneers, C. P. M. (2018). Emerging challenges to shark-diving tourism. Marine Policy, 96, 9–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.07.009

Garla, R. C., Freitas, R. H. A., Calado, J. F., Paterno, G. B. C., & Carvalho, A. R. (2015). Public awareness of the economic potential and threats to sharks of a tropical oceanic archipelago in the western South Atlantic. Marine Policy, 60, 128–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.06.012

Gore, M. L., Muter, B. A., Lapinski, M. K., Neuberger, L., & Heide, B. van der. (2011). Risk frames on shark diving websites: Implications for global shark conservation. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 21(2), 165–172. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.1171

Morton, B. (2013). The Beginners Guide to shark diving. Sport Diver, 21(7), 36–47.

Nazimi, L., Robbins, W. D., Schilds, A., & Huveneers, C. (2018). Comparison of industry-based data to monitor white shark cage-dive tourism. Tourism Management, 66 (Journal Article), 263–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.12.002

Pedro Barreiros, J., Gadig, O. B. F., & Haddad, V. (2015). In Reply to Shark Attacks and Shark Diving. Wilderness & Environmental Medicine, 26(2), 277–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2014.11.018

Pratt, S., Pratt, S., & Suntikul, W. (2016). Can Marine Wildlife Tourism Provide an “Edutaining” Experience? Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 33(6), 867–884. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2015.1069778

Preez, M. D., Dicken, M., & Hosking, S. G. (2012). The Value of Tiger Shark Diving Within the Aliwal Shoal Marine Protected Area: A Travel Cost Analysis. South African Journal of Economics, 80(3), 387–399. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1813-6982.2011.01292.x

Richards, K., O’Leary, B. C., Roberts, C. M., Ormond, R., Gore, M., & Hawkins, J. P. (2015). Sharks and people: Insight into the global practices of tourism operators and their attitudes to Shark behaviour. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 91(1), 200–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.12.004

Smith, K., Scarr, M., & Scarpaci, C. (2010). Grey Nurse Shark Diving Tourism: Tourist Compliance and Shark Behaviour at Fish Rock, Australia. Environmental Management, 46(5), 699–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-010-9561-8

Sutcliffe, S. R., & Barnes, M. L. (2018). The role of shark ecotourism in conservation behaviour: Evidence from Hawaii. Marine Policy, 97, 27–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.08.022

Techera, E. J., & Klein, N. (2013). The role of law in shark-based eco-tourism: Lessons from Australia. Marine Policy, 39, 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2012.10.003

Thorson, T. B. (1982). The Impact of Commercial Exploitation on Sawfish and Shark Populations in Lake Nicaragua. Fisheries, 7(2), 2–10. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8446(1982)007<0002:TIOCEO>2.0.CO;2

Topelko, K. N., & Dearden, P. (2005). The Shark Watching Industry and its Potential Contribution to Shark Conservation. Journal of Ecotourism, 4(2), 108–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/14724040409480343

Torres, P., Bolhão, N., Tristão da Cunha, R., Vieira, J. A. C., & Rodrigues, A. dos S. (2017). Dead or alive: The growing importance of shark diving in the Mid-Atlantic region. Journal for Nature Conservation, 36, 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2017.01.005

Vianna, G. M. S., Meekan, M. G., Pannell, D. J., Marsh, S. P., & Meeuwig, J. J. (2012). Socio-economic value and community benefits from shark-diving tourism in Palau: A sustainable use of reef shark populations. Biological Conservation, 145(1), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.022

Zemah Shamir, Z., Zemah Shamir, S., Tchernov, D., Scheinin, A., & Becker, N. (2019). Shark aggregation and tourism: Opportunities and challenges of an emerging phenomenon. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 26(5), 406–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2019.1573769

Ziegler, J. A., Silberg, J. N., Araujo, G., Labaja, J., Ponzo, A., Rollins, R., & Dearden, P. (2018). A guilty pleasure: Tourist perspectives on the ethics of feeding whale sharks in Oslob, Philippines. Tourism Management, 68(Generic), 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.04.001

Ziegler, J., Dearden, P., & Rollins, R. (2012). But are tourists satisfied? Importance-performance analysis of the whale shark tourism industry on Isla Holbox, Mexico. Tourism Management, 33(3), 692–701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.08.004

Shark conservation

Baum, J. K., et al. (2003). Collapse and Conservation of Shark Populations in the Northwest Atlantic. Science: 299- 389.

Compagno, L. J. V., & Cook, S. F. (1995). The exploitation and conservation of freshwater elasmobranchs: Status of taxa and prospects for the future. Journal of Aquariculture and Aquatic Sciences.

Cunningham-Day, R. (2001). Sharks in Danger: Global shark conservation status with reference to management plans and legislation. Parkland, FL USA, Universal Publishers.

Gelsleichter, J., Manire, C. A., Szabo, N. J., Cortés, E., Carlson, J., & Lombardi-Carlson, L. (2005). Organochlorine Concentrations in Bonnethead Sharks (Sphyrna tiburo) from Four Florida Estuaries. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 48(4), 474–483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-003-0275-2

Muter, B. A., Gore, M. L., Gledhill, K. S., Lamont, C., & Huveneers, C. (2013). Australian and U.S. News Media Portrayal of Sharks and Their Conservation: Media Portrayal of Sharks. Conservation Biology, 27(1), 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01952.x

O’Bryhim, J. R., & Parsons, E. C. M. (2015). Increased knowledge about sharks increases public concern about their conservation. Marine Policy, 56, 43–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.02.007

O’Connell, C. P., Andreotti, S., Rutzen, M., Meÿer, M., Matthee, C. A., & He, P. (2014). Effects of the Sharksafe barrier on white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) behavior and its implications for future conservation technologies. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 460, 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2014.06.004

Simpfendorfer, C. A., & Kyne, p. M. (2009). Limited potential to recover from overfishing raises concerns for deep-sea sharks, rays and chimaeras. Environmental Conservation; Cambridge, 36(2), 97–103. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canterbury.ac.nz/10.1017/S0376892909990191

Simpfendorfer, C. A., Heupel, M. R., White, W. T., & Dulvy, N. K. (2011). The importance of research and public opinion to conservation management of sharks and rays: A synthesis. Marine and Freshwater Research, 62(6), 518–527. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF11086

Tsoi, K. H., Chan, S. Y., Lee, Y. C., Ip, B. H. Y., & Cheang, C. C. (2016). Shark Conservation: An Educational Approach Based on Children’s Knowledge and Perceptions toward Sharks. PLoS ONE, 11(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163406

Multispecies approach

Gibbs, L. (2020). Agency in human–shark encounter. Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space, 2514848620929942. https://doi.org/10.1177/2514848620929942

Bear, C. (2011). Being Angelica? Exploring individual animal geographies. Area, 43(3), 297–304. Retrieved from JSTOR.

Bear, C. (2013). Assembling the sea: Materiality, movement and regulatory practices in the Cardigan Bay scallop fishery. Cultural Geographies, 20(1), 21–41.

Bear, C., & Eden, S. (2011). Thinking like a Fish? Engaging with Nonhuman Difference through Recreational Angling. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 29(2), 336–352. https://doi.org/10.1068/d1810

Hammerton, Z., & Ford, A. (2018). Decolonising the Waters: Interspecies Encounters Between Sharks and Humans. Animal Studies Journal, 7(1), 270–303.

Hughes, H. (2011). Humans, sharks and the shared environment in the contemporary eco-doc. Environmental Education Research 17(6): 735-749.

Schneider, K. (2013). Pigs, Fish, and Birds: Toward Multispecies Ethnography in Melanesia. Environment & Society, 4, 25–40. Retrieved from JSTOR.

Aich, R. S. (2021c). Cage less diving with white sharks, a multispecies perspective. Academia Letters. https://www.academia.edu/50405690/Cage_less_diving_with_white_sharks_a_multispecies_perspective

Aich, R. S. (2022). Iridescent skin, White Sharks and Caged Humans; an Ethnographic Exploration of Great White Shark Cage Diving in New Zealand. Niyogi Books.

Martin, J. A. (2011). When Sharks (Don’t) Attack: Wild Animal Agency in Historical Narratives. Environmental History, 16(3), 451–455. https://doi.org/10.1093/envhis/emr051

Shark social interaction

Brown, C. (2018). The social lives of sharks ProQuest. Australasian Science, 39(2). Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.canterbury.ac.nz/docview/2007002812?pq-origsite=summon

Gruber, D. M. & Krause, J. S. H. (2018). Are some sharks more social than others? Short- and long-term consistencies in the social behavior of juvenile lemon sharks. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology; Heidelberg, 72(1), 1–10. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canterbury.ac.nz/10.1007/s00265-017-2431-0

Guttridge, T. L., Gruber, S. H., Krause, J., & Sims, D. W. (2010). Novel Acoustic Technology for Studying Free-Ranging Shark Social Behaviour by Recording Individuals’ Interactions. PLoS One; San Francisco, 5(2), e9324. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canterbury.ac.nz/10.1371/journal.pone.0009324

Guttridge, T. L., Myrberg, A. A., Porcher, I. F., Sims, D. W., & Krause, J. (2009). The role of learning in shark behaviour. Fish and Fisheries, 10(4), 450–469. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2009.00339.x

Guttridge, T. L., van Dijk, S., Stamhuis, E. J., Krause, J., Gruber, S. H., & Brown, C. (2013). Social learning in juvenile lemon sharks, Negaprion brevirostris. Animal Cognition, 16(1), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-012-0550-6

Jacoby, D. M., P, Fear, L. N., Sims, D. W., & Croft, D. P. (2014). Shark personalities? Repeatability of social network traits in a widely distributed predatory fish. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology; Heidelberg, 68(12), 1995–2003. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canterbury.ac.nz/10.1007/s00265-014-1805-9

Mourier, J., Vercelloni, J., & Planes, S. (2012). Evidence of social communities in a spatially structured network of a free-ranging shark species. Animal Behaviour, 83(2), 389–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.11.008

Marine monster

Cama, N. (2012). Object of the week: The horrors of the deep. Australian National Maritime Museum. https://www.sea.museum/2012/05/01/object-of-the-week-the-horrors-of-the-deep

Cousteau, J. Y. & P. Diolé (1973). Octopus and squid: the soft intelligence [by] Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Philippe Diole. Translated from the French by J.F.Bernard. London Book, Cassell.

Trout, P. A., & Ehrenreich, B. (2011). Deadly Powers: Animal Predators and the Mythic Imagination. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.

Significant books looking at holistic perspectives

Bhana, M. (2000). “White Shark” The Nature of the Beast. Retrieved from https://www.nzgeo.com/video/white-shark-the-nature-of-the-beast/

Budker, P. & P. J. P. Whitehead (1971). The life of sharks. New York, Columbia University Press.

Cerullo, M. M., & Rotman, J. L. (2000). The Truth about Great White Sharks. Chronicle Books.

Cousteau, J.-M., & Richards, M. (1992). Cousteau’s Great White Shark (First Edition edition). New York: Harry N Abrams Inc.

Domeier, M. L. (Ed.). (2012). Global Perspectives on the Biology and Life History of the White Shark (1 edition). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Ebert, D. A., et al. (2013). Sharks of the world: a fully illustrated guide. Plymouth, UK, Wild Nature Press.

Ebert, D. A., Fowler, S., & Dando, M. (2015). A Pocket Guide to Sharks of the World (Poc edition). Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Ferreira, C. (2011). Great White Sharks on their best behavior. Middleton & Strauss.

Ferreira, C. A. (2011). Great White sharks on their best behavior: An adventure and guide into the world of Jaws. Amazon Digital Services, Inc, Middleton & Strauss.

Klimley, A. P. (2013). The Biology of Sharks and Rays. Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press.

Skomal, D. G., and Caloyianis, N. (2008). The Shark Handbook: The Essential Guide for Understanding the Sharks of the World (1 edition). Kennelbunkport, Maine: Cider Mill Press.

Knowledge system approach in shark knowledge

Crawford, S. (2017). White Pointer Chronicles. White Pointer Chronicles. https://www.whitepointer.cloud/